Worship and Ritual in Christianity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Worship and Ritual in Christianity - Essay Example The Bible is the Holy Book Christians use to worship and has been used as the guide to everyday life. There are rituals and festivals that mark the manner in which Christians praise God (Pecklers 65). These rituals trade back to the festivities that are seen in the Bible, and to this day, many individuals still uphold the practices. However, not many people view these rituals as a way of worship. They see it is primitive and empty. Some go as far as suggesting that there is no Supreme Being to worship. This paper, however, will examine worship and rituals that mark the Christian faith, and why it is vital to live believing in something. Empty ritualism is the process of undergoing, or performing a ritual while there is the absence of sincerity or genuine meaning. A lot of this happens in many areas as individuals believe that they are doing this to fall in God’s favour. This, to a large number of people, is what is called ritualism (White 61). It is usually done to recover som e sense of religious feeling that was once lost. This is not condoned in modern Christian settings as it gives off a feeling of worship being violated. Whenever the pattern of worship is violated, people know that the design meant for ritual is not being followed. This gives the religion a terrible reputation among other religions that exist. Christians pride themselves with the thought of their religion being superior to other existent religions. They, therefore, follow most of the rituals in the Bible strictly so as to abide by the ways of truth. In the Holy Book, the New Testament ways are chosen over the Old Testament ways. This shows that some of the rituals that were once carried out; need no longer be carried out after the coming of Christ. He came to shed light on how Christians could live without some of the old traditions that ruled their lives (White 64). As such, modern day Christians follow the New Testament to guide them in everyday life. That is why; sacrifices and bu rnt offerings are not part of the rituals Christians carry out in modern time. They, however, still observe some of the rituals in the Bible. As with any religion, there are bound to be groups that choose to do things differently. This is according to how they view and comprehend the Bible. This is probably why there are diverse groups of the Christian religion, which choose to be different from others. This is through the way and manner of worship, and conducting of their rituals. All these groups view the other as a pervasion of the real Christian religion. What they do not seem to realise is that all these groups serve the same purpose, and the same God (White 76). Christians worship throughout the week, and the year. Even though, the styles of worship differ in all the denominations present, the services, worship ceremonies, and rituals, hold extraordinary meaning to Christians. Christians believe that the church is the dwelling place of God. This is where they conduct their ser vices. Many of the believers worship on Sunday as they believe it is the Sabbath, the day that Jesus rested. Others, for example, the Seventh Day Adventist, believe that Saturday is the blessed day. This does not make them any less Christian than the Catholics, who are considered the foundation on which Christianity is built. There is the use of art and decoration in these diverse denominations (White 76). The use of arts and decorations vary as they stand for different meaning and symbolism in these places of worship. They, however, serve the purpose of praising and worshiping God wherever they are used. Some of the ancient customs and traditions that are connected to Jesus are still practiced in

Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Economics - Essay Example Due to current civil unrest in Bahrain and neighboring locations there are no current statistics available. However, the rate of inflation in 2010 was 3.3% which was up sharply from the reported 2.8% in 2009. One author from the Wall Street Journal wrote, â€Å"In its statement, Egypt's Central Bank said deteriorating regional political circumstances, including a civil war in Libya as well as violence in Syria, Yemen and Bahrain, could drive up oil prices and further slow the continuing global economic recovery.† (Bradley) The Bahrain Economic Development board is positive in the most recent release, â€Å"In Q4 2010, the Bahrain economy is expected to post similar growth to that seen in the third quarter growth†¦over 4%† (Bahrain Economic Quarterly p. 4). Overall there is growth occurring especially in the tourism section as oil only accounts for approximately 15% of the economic outlook. With the civil unrest and potential for continuing problems there may be a d rop in tourism as a result. It will be necessary to see what the results are before making long term forecasts. Bahrain Economic Quarterly, . "Bahrain 2030, Bahrain Economy." Bahrain Economic Development board. N.p., First Quarter 2011. Web. 28 Apr 2011. http://www.bahrainedb.com/uploadedFiles/Bahraincom/BahrainForBusiness/BEQ%20Q1%202011.pdf Bradley, M. "Egypt Central Bank Keeps Key Interest Rates Unchanged ." Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones and Company, 28 April 2011.

NaOH Standardization and Titration of an Unknown Organic Acid Essay Example for Free

NaOH Standardization and Titration of an Unknown Organic Acid Essay NaOH Standardization and Titration of an Unknown Organic Acid Overview: Methods for counting the number of molecules in a sample is a major emphasis of laboratory work. In this experiment we will use the method of titration to count the number of acid molecules in a solution. Measuring mass is a relatively easy procedure to do in the lab (although a balance is expensive). Counting the number of particles requires more effort. Molecular counting can be done by setting an unknown amount of a substance equal to a known amount of substance. In the titration we will perform in lab this week, you will add OH ions to solution until they are equivalent to the number of H+ ions in solution. The point at which this mole equivalency occurs is known as the equivalence point. An indicator in the solution will change color to signal that the equivalence has been reached (actually, the indicator responds to the slightest excess of OH ions). The color change in a titration is called the endpoint. At the equivalence point of the titration, the moles of OH (base) are equivalent to the moles of H+ (acid) in the sample. The moles of OH added to the solution from a buret are calculated from the concentration of the base (MOH) and the volume of base (VOH) added, as: V (L) n (mol) Lmol MOH OH OH The lab goal is to determine the molar mass of an unknown monoprotic acid. The grams of acid are determined from weighing the acid and the moles are determined from the titration with NaOH. Because it is a monoprotic acid, the moles of acid are equal to the moles of OH at the endpoint of the titration. n (mol) n (mol) OH acid Standardization of NaOH: Last week in lab you prepared a NaOH solution with an approximate concentration of 0.1 M. The first task is to determine the exact concentration of that solution by titrating the NaOH against a known amount of acid. The known amount of acid you will use comes from dissolving the solid acid potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP, FW = 204.2212 g/mol) in 25 mL of H2O. KHP is a large organic molecule, but can be viewed simply as a monoprotic acid. The titration of the KHP with NaOH can be express by the chemical reaction: OH (aq) + KHP(aq) H2O + KP (aq) To standardize (determine the concentration of) your NaOH solution Lmol you will measure volume of NaOH required to reach the titration endpoint. At the equivalence point the moles of NaOH are equivalent to the moles of KHP titrated. n (mol) n (mol) NaOH KHP .Before you titrate a KHP sample, begin with a practice titration of 25 mL of a 0.1 M HCl solution with your NaOH. A  practice titration is a good way to begin any titration. It lets you know the approximate concentration of your NaOH solution and the behavior of the indicator at the endpoint. Prepare a buret with your NaOH solution. Recall how you clean the buret first with DI water and then rinse the buret with about 10 mL of your NaOH solution. Drain the rinse NaOH into a large waste beaker at your lab bench. Finally, fill your buret with NaOH,. Be sure to fill the tip of the buret before you use it and make sure there are no bubbles in the tip. With your graduated cylinder measure approximately 25 mL of 0.1M HCl. Record the exact volume you use. Add the HCl to an erlenmyer flask and add three drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate the acid solution with the NaOH. Place the erlenmyer flask under the buret on a white sheet of paper (or towel). Remember to make an initial volume reading before you begin. You should need nearly the same volume of base as you have acid for this titration, because the molarities of each are similar. You can titrate quickly at first, but as you get near the endpoint slow your titrating. Small amounts of titrant can be added by quickly rotating the buret stopcock one revolution as you approach the end point. Even smaller quantities of a single drop can be added as you approach the end point. Remember this is only practice. Don t spend a lot of time on this step. After you have reached the endpoint, the lightest pink color that will persist for 20 seconds, show this solution to your TA. Anything past light pink indicates a solution with excess OH and you will be over counting the moles of acid in solution. After this practice titration, refill your buret, dump your titrated solution down the drain, and rinse your glassware with DI water. Standardization of NaOH with KHP: Prepare a solution with a known number of moles of acid, by weighing exactly, approximately 0.5 grams of the solid acid KHP in a weigh boat. (Do not add KHP to the weigh boat while on the balance!) Add the weighed acid to a large erlenmyer flask. If any of the KHP remains on the weigh boat use your squirt bottle to rinse all of the KHP into the erlenmyer flask. Dissolve the acid in approximately 30 mL of water the exact amount does not matter. Add four drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate the KHP acid solution with the NaOH. Place the erlenmyer flask under the buret on a white sheet of paper (or towel). Remember to make an initial volume reading before you begin. If not all of the KHP is dissolved, you can still begin the titration. Just make sure that all the  KHP is dissolved before you reach the titration endpoint. The first titration is always the most difficult because you do not know how carefully you need to add the titrant. In this case, you should be able to add 15 mL of NaOH without passing the endpoint. As you are adding your initial amounts of NaOH,notice the pink color of the indicator right as the NaOH enters the solution. As the pink color begins to persist, slow the titration down. Do not let the buret go below 50 mL during the titration. If you get close to 50 mL, stop the titration, record the volume of the buret and then refill the buret and continue to titrate. The end point of the titration occurs when the solution is the lightest pink color that will persist for 20 seconds. It is very likely that you will overshoot the endpoint on your first try. Don t let this worry you. Record the final volume on the buret. At the equivalence point, you have added the exact number of moles of OH as there were moles of acid initially. The moles of acid (monoprotic) you can determine from the mass of the acid and its molar mass (KHP = 204.2212 g/mol). Before you continue, calculate the approximate concentration of your NaOH solution. Perform a second titration of KHP with NaOH. Weigh and dissolve another 0.5 g sample of KHP and dissolve it in a clean erlenmyer flask. The flask can be wet inside. Why can the Erlenmyer flask be wet when sample is added, but the buret must be carefully rinsed with the solution that will eventually be dispensed? Refill your buret with NaOH and titrate the new KHP sample to its pink endpoint. Do not forget to make an intial buret reading, add indicator and not go past 50 mL on the buret. After the titration, calculate the concentration (molarity) of your NaOH solution. Titrate a third KHP sample with the intent of obtaining a third measurement of your NaOH solution concentration. After tititrating the third sample, calculate the NaOH concentration and compare all three calculations of the NaOH concentrations. If the three measurements of the concentration are the same to within 0.02 M, you may conclude that the concentration of your NaOH is the average of these three measurements. If you have accomplished this precision in your standardization of NaOH, continue to the titration on an unknown acid. If any of the measured NaOH concentrations are more than 0.02 M, you should perform a fourth standardization titration, using another 0.5 g sample of KHP. After examining the four concentration of NaOH, determine if any one concentration is suspect as either too large or too small. You  can do this by inspection. However, there are statistical tests (Student T-tests) that will calculate if a data point is an outlier. If we ever team teach this course with Math140 we will use the student T-test at this point. For now, if three concentrations are within 0.02 M then average these three concentrations as the NaOH concentration. If you still don t have three measurements within 0.02 M of each other, perform a fifth standardization with a new sample of KHP. Obtain the NaOH concentration from the fifth titration and average all five measurements to obtain an average NaOH concentration.Titration of an Unknown Acid to Determine Molar Mass: The units of molar mass are g/mol. This intensive property is the ratio of two extensive properties, as is shown in the figure below. To determine the molar mass of your unknown acid, you will perform the titration of the unknown acid in the same way you performed the titration of KHP. Obtain from your TA an unknown acid sample vial. Write your unknown number in your notebook. This sample vial contains two samples of your unknown acid. Weigh the vial and all its contents. Add half of the acid to a clean erlenmyer flask. Reweigh the sample vial to determine how much acid you will be titrating in Trial # 1. Note: There are only two samples of your unknown available. Exercise caution while titrating. Treating the unknown acid in the same way as the KHP sample, titrate to the endpoint and calculate the moles of NaOH require to reach the endpoint. From the mass and mole measurements of the unknown acid, determine the molar mass of the unknown acid. Clean your glassware and repeat the titrtation on the second sample of unknown acid. To report the molar mass of the acid, take an average of the two molar mass measurements. Report the uncertainty as half of the difference between the two mass measurements (ex. if Trial # 1 gives a mass of 240 g/mol and Tiral # 2 gives 256 g/mol the average should be reported as 248 8 g/mol). Before you leave the lab, clean your buret with distilled water then place it upside down in the buret clamp with the stopcock open. All solutions can be placed down the sink. Return your unknown vial to your TA. Finally, turn in your blue notebook pages

Review on the Biomedical Importance of Taurine

Review on the Biomedical Importance of Taurine M.K.Vanitha, K. Baskaran, K.Periyasamy, D.Saravanan, A.Ilakkia, S.Selvaraj, R.Venkateswari, B.Revathi Mani, P.Anandakumar, D. Sakthisekaran ABSTRACT Objectives: To briefly outline the effects of taurine on different organs, in order to elucidate the biomedical importance of taurine. Summary: Taurineis a sulfur-containing amino acid that is found in mammalian tissues.Taurinehas different biological and physiological functions. It is a component of bile acids, which are used to help absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins. It also helps regulate the heartbeat, maintain cell membrane stability and prevent brain cell over-activity. In addition,taurine chloramine, an endogenous product derived from activated neutrophils, has been reported to suppress obesity-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in adipocytes. Conclusion: This review is an attempt to reveal the biomedical importance of taurine including its effect on heart, lung, kidney, bone, fetal tissue, retinal photoceptors, oxidative stress and cancer. Key words:taurine, endothelium, lung, kidney, antioxidant 1. INTRODUCTION Taurine originated from the Latin word taurus, which means bull or ox, as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by Austrian scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin.1 It is often considered an amino acid in scientific literatures. It is a vital nutrient for cats, and probably also for primates, since it is essential for the development and survival of neural cell.2 In healthy humans, dietary foodstuffs are the main sources of taurine. High concentrations of taurine are found in animal sources whilst undetectable in vegetables.3 Figure 1: Structure of taurine Since vegetarians have no dietary intake of taurine and often eat low sulphur amino acid diets, plasma concentrations are lower in vegetarians. Methionine and cysteine are precursors of taurine, however synthesis ability varies widely amongst species, the maximal human synthesis rate is unknown. The average daily synthesis in adults ranges between 0.4 1.0 mmol (50-125 mg) 4 under stress the synthesis capacity may be impaired; therewith some authors consider taurine as a conditionally essential amino acid, whereas for others it remains non essential. Fish is a good source of taurine and tests for taurine content for a variety of fish have been conducted. Figure 2: Biosynthesis of taurine 2. CHEMISTRY OF TAURINE The molecular formula of taurine is C2H7NO3S and its molecular weight is 125.15. It has a pKa of 1.5 (at 25 Â °C) and a melting point of 300 Â °C (decomposition) and shows a bulk density of 0.65–0.75g/cm3 and a density of approximately 1.7g/cm3. It is soluble in water (10 g dissolves in 100 mL at 25 Â °C) and insoluble in ethanol, ethyl ether and acetone. The pH of a 5 % solution in water is 4.1 – 5.6. Taurine is a white crystalline powder that is almost odourless but with a slightly acidic taste. It contains by specification at least 98.0 % taurine in dried substance. Taurine is a monobasic acid that has unique physical constants compared to other neuroactive amino acids. The uniqueness of taurine is mainly due to the functional group containing sulfur, the sulfonic group, unlike the carboxylic group typical of all the other natural amino acids. This difference may provide the rationale behind the unique biological nature of taurine which is not shared with other ne uroactive amino acids. With its sulfonate group, it is a stronger acid (pKa 1.5) than glycine, aspartic acid, ÃŽ ²-alanine, and ÃŽ ³-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Similarly, having a pKb value of 8.82, it is less basic than GABA, ÃŽ ²-alanine and glycine. Its solubility in water is 10.48g/100mL at 258Â °C, which is lower than that of ÃŽ ²-alanine, GABA or glycine. Table 1: Properties of taurine 3. BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF TAURINE 3.1 TAURINE IN FETAL DEVELOPMENT AND NEONATAL GROWTH The human fetus has no ability to synthesize taurine, but considerably high levels of taurine have been recorded, and this may be due to a very efficient placental role of taurine in disease prevention. The amount of taurine was found to be very high in human breast milk compared to cow’s milk, on which a large portion of infants are fed, and this may be due to the high concentration of taurine in placenta. Thus, taurine is now added to many infant formulas to provide improved nourishment.5 Several types of organ dysfunction develop from abnormalities of taurine levels in growing children. In neonatal cardiomyocytes (as in adult ones), taurine functions as an organic osmolyte. During pregnancy, taurine accumulates in the maternal tissues, from where it is periodically released to the fetus via the placenta. In infants, taurine is acquired through the mother’s milk. This is the stage when taurine accumulates more in fetal and neonatal brain. A low maternal taurine concen tration will lead to low fetal taurine concentration.6 3.2 TAURINE AND THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) Taurine is the most abundant amino acid in the brain after glutamate, and it is found in all cell types in the CNS. A high concentration of taurine occurs in the developing brain, but with maturity, its levels fall to 30%.7 Taurine is extensively involved in neurological activities, including protection, modulation of neural excitability, maintenance of cerebellar functions and modulation of motor behavior through interaction with dopaminergic, adrenergic, serotonergic and cholinergic receptors and through glutamate.8 Free radicals are particularly detrimental to brain tissue where there is a high concentration of lipids, suitable target for oxidation. Taurine is now being explored for its capacity to protect tissues against oxidative stress. In cerebellar neurons, stimulation by excitatory agents was effectively countered by taurine. While taurine may not directly decrease the levels of free radicals, it does increase cell viability. This may become an important alternate protective mechanism against free radical damage to brain cells. 3.3 TAURINE AND THE LIVER Liver synthesizes bile, which is a mixture of bile acids, salts, bilirubin, cholesterol and fatty acids, stored in the gallbladder. It is also responsible for the detoxification of harmful substances, but only if available in sufficient quantities. The bile acids act as detergents to solubilize or emulsify food into digestible components. This detergent action is due to the presence of both lipophilic and hydrophilic ends in the bile acids. The hydrophilic regions include sulfonates or carboxylate backbones. Mammals mainly use taurine and, to a lesser extent glycine, as the major amino acids that conjugate with bile acids to form biliary salts. Among the tauro-conjugates, taurocholic acid (TC), taurodeoxycholic acid (TDC), taurolithocholic acid (TLC), and taurocheno- deoxycholic acid (TCDC), can act as cholagogues (agents that promote the flow of bile into the intestine) or choleretics (agents that stimulate the liver to increase production of bile). The ratio between tauro-conjugate s and glycocholate in humans is about 3 : 1 and this ratio is adversely affected in cases of low taurine supply. In the absence of TC, bile salts can precipitate and form gallstones.9 3.4 TAURINE AND HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA In blood, cholesterol is carried in low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high density lipoproteins (HDL). Elevated LDL levels are implicated in a range of heart and vascular diseases, including myocardial infarction (heart attack) and atherosclerosis (clogging of the arteries). Taurine can attenuate the increased levels in total and LDL cholesterol in animals consuming a high fat, high cholesterol diet.10 High fat diets produce hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, and accumulation of lipids on the aortic valve of the heart. Dietary taurine supplements are known to be beneficial in situations when the body cholesterol status is high, as well as normal. In particular, it has been demonstrated that taurine is capable of reducing plasma lipid concentration and visceral fat in diabetic rats as well as in obese humans.11 3.5 TAURINE AND OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LIVER DAMAGE Exposure to toxic chemicals, which is a common hazard for industrial workers, has been linked to birth defects, sterility, headache, chronic fatigue, arthritic-like inflammation and many other symptoms. These chemicals have a deleterious effect on the liver and taurine is able to moderate the extent and severity of their side. Furthermore, it reduces the number of cancer antigen-positive hepatocytes and in several cases of chemical exposure, taurine also protected against DNA damage.12 3.6 TAURINE AND DIABETES Type II diabetes mellitus is one of the most common human diseases and its prevalence is constantly growing. This pathology is characterized by the reduced sensitivity of the cellular targets, mainly adipose and muscle cells, to insulin stimulation. Such alteration can lead to insulin resistance, hyper-insulinemia, hyperglycemia, and several other metabolic dysfunctions. Lifestyle, dietary habits, and environment can influence the appearance of diabetes.13 Taurine supplements administered to patients with type 2 diabetes were proven to be beneficial. Also, taurine alleviates clinical complications of diabetes, having beneficial effects on nephropathy and retinopathy. In animal models of experimental insulin resistance, it has been demonstrated that the metabolic alterations associated with diabetes are ameliorated by taurine administration.14 3.7 TAURINE AND THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Taurine concentration is found to be high in the mammalian heart. The maintenance of cardiac taurine content is governed by a series of processes, which include transport, accumulation, binding, release, as well as metabolism. The availability of taurine in cardiac tissue is generally dependent on the transport process, because of its limited ability to be effectively synthesized in the cardiac tissue. Taurine deficiency may possibly be linked to cardiomyopathy, as it has been well reported in cats. Furthermore, conclusive evidence of the relationship between taurine and heart health was provided by studies with transgenic mice knocked out of its taurine transporter.15 3.8 TAURINE AND ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION Endothelial dysfunction is common among cardiovascular diseases and diabetes and it is known as one of the primary events in the development of atherosclerosis and diabetic angiopathies.16 Taurine has been shown to be a protector of endothelial structure and function after exposure to inflammatory cells, their mediators, or other chemicals. Treatment of activated macrophages with taurine inhibits the generation of NO and other inflammatory mediators, which is present in high amounts in inflammatory cells, seems to be uniquely capable of modifying homeostasis in both target and receptor cells through antioxidant calcium flux and the osmo regulatory pathway. Finally, taurine was proven to protect endothelial cells from damage induced by hyperglycemia and oxidized LDL.17 3.9 TAURINE AND LUNG FUNCTION The depletion of taurine is particularly harmful to pulmonary tissue. Alveolar macrophages, which reside on the surface of lung alveoli, ingest inhaled particulates to clear the alveolar spaces. However, alveolar macrophages, much like the general macrophages, become more susceptible to ROS and more pro-inflammatory when deprived of the antioxidant protective capacity that taurine provides. Fibrosis may also result from toxic chemical exposure. There are numerous factors responsible for toxin-induced damage to lung cells and tissue in animal models of induced interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. In several cases, the administration of taurine, niacin or a combination of both, yielded promising results, and can reverse increased lung lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, the ability to scavenge ROS and to stabilize cell membranes contributed to the suppression of lung collagen accumulation and oxidative stress damage. Asthma is a chronic disease characterized by bronchial obstruction and airwa y hyper reactivity with neutrophil accumulation. There is increasing evidence that excessive production of ROS along with defective endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms may be responsible for asthma. In an animal model of allergic asthma, taurine content was found to be reduced and oral treatment with taurine produced anti-inflammatory responses. Similar effects have also been demonstrated in humans.18 3.10 TAURINE AND THE KIDNEY In the kidneys, taurine is found at a high concentration, which is regulated by the reabsorption at the modulating proximal tubule according to its dietary intake. In alleviating the diabetic nephropathy, taurine serves as an osmolyte, an endogenous antioxidant and an inhibitor of phosphokinase C (PKC) in mesangial cells. The beneficial effects of taurine may be due to its well-known anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activities.19 3.11 TAURINE AND RETINAL PHOTORECEPTOR ACTIVITY The common eye disease cataract demonstrates the importance of lens condition. It is speculated that cataract formation may be largely due to the oxidation of protein in the lens. Consequently, a lack of antioxidants could be a major factor in the development of cataracts. Since taurine acts as an antioxidant directly, it prevents changes in the levels of glutathione, ATP and insoluble proteins, molecular factors that predispose to cataract formation.20 Furthermore, taurine plays a critical role in the structure and function of the photoreceptors, specifically rods, which are responsible for seeing in both low illumination and night conditions. The promotional effect of taurine in cellular regeneration is compromised with drugs that induce the activation of PKC or phosphate inhibitors.21 Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is characterized by visual field loss and night blindness. Nutritional factors are now recognized as important factors in the reversal of RP. Experimental finding suggests t hat RP patients recover their visual capacities with the addition of nutrients, including taurine, which has been found to be beneficial. Taurine and zinc interact with each other to influence the development of the retinal structure and function in the eye. Both molecules promote the healthy oscillatory potentials necessary for vision. Deficiency of taurine has been identified as the cause of all these diseases and clearly demonstrates its vital role in vision.22 3.12 TAURINE IN BONE TISSUE FORMATION AND INHIBITION OF BONE LOSS Bone tissue contains cells and the extracellular matrix, which is composed of collagen fibers and noncollagenous proteins. In bone tissue, taurine is found in high concentration, similar to that found in the liver and kidneys. This taurine-bone interaction is one of the latest added to its long list of actions.23 In bones, taurine acts as a double agent. It is involved in both bone formation and inhibition of bone loss. In addition to these two major actions, taurine has beneficial effects in wound healing and bone repair. 3.13 ANTICANCER ACTIVITY OF TAURINE Taurine has been found that taurine has radio protective properties and anti-mutagenic effect, reducing nucleic acid damage. The chemo-preventive activity of taurine and, in particular, 1-(2-chloroethyl)- 3(2-dimethyl sulfony) ethyl-11-nitrosourea derivative (e.g., tauromustine), have been used against colon and hepatic cancers. In hepato-carcinogenesis, the degree of membrane damage and the fall in glutathione function were reduced when oral taurine was given prior to exposure to carcinogens. These findings suggest that taurine, by inhibiting lipo-peroxidation and preserving the glutathione antioxidant system, offers protection against membrane breakdown.24 Recombinant interleukin-2 immunotherapy is utilized as a therapeutic approach in certain types of cancers. However, it may produce a cytotoxic effect on both tumor cells and healthy vascular endothelial cells. In such cancer therapy programs, taurine reduces interleukin endothelial cell cytotoxicity without compromising the antitumor activity of the immunotherapy. In addition, when taurine is used in conjunction with interleukin, it actually increases the tumor cytotoxicity. For the treatment of intra peritoneal (abdominal) tumors, researchers have studied a taurine derivative, taurolidine, as both an alternative and an adjunct to heparin, a standard substance used to prolong the clotting time of blood. In certain cancers, the amino acid profile yields data about the disease that is useful to better assess the therapeutic approach. Colorectal cancer patients exhibit a characteristic amino acid profile with significantly lower intracellular levels of taurine, glutamic acid, methionine , and ornithine and elevated levels of valine. Likewise, squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck exhibit a profile that is marked by decreased taurine.25 4. CONCLUSION This review highlights the divergent effects of taurine on different tissues. Thus, further studies on taurine could exemplify the beneficial role of taurine in human health and disease. 1

Imperialism Essay -- essays research papers fc

Imperialism Imperialism Throughout time more powerful countries have extended their influence over weaker countries and then colonized those countries to expand their own power. Imperialism causes the stronger countries to grow and become nations or even empires. There are many examples throughout European history of nations enveloping weaker countries and increasing their own wealth and power to form strong nation-states and even empires. Through imperialism one culture is invading another culture and most of the time the European colonialists are not thinking about the effects this invasion might have on the natives of that land. Problems caused by imperialism have prevailed to this day. Imperialism caused a breakdown of the previous cultures and lifestyles that the natives had followed. The European imperialism caused many of the now prevalent ethnic rivalries that can be found in northern India, parts of Asia, and parts of Africa. "Africa and much of the developing world have been strug gling for nearly half a century to come to terms with grinding ethnic and tribal rivalries that remain, in a way, one of the most enduring legacies of their colonial past." In many cases of European imperialism, the European colonialists would pick a favored minority in one of their colonies to govern their colony locally and with this priority came assurance of the best jobs and favored treatment. This caused a sort of rivalry between that minority and the majority of natives who were not given this priority. Resentment towards these favored minorities grows and after the country achieves independence the popular resentment can turn to violence. An example of this is the Sikhs in India. The Sikhs created the powerful state of Punjab in 1800, which became a threat to British-controlled India and after two years of war Britain annexed the Punjab in 1849. The Sikhs were loyal to the British. In return for that loyalty, during the Sepoy Mutiny the British gave them preferential la nd grants. Throughout British rule, the Sikhs gained wealth and a great reputation as soldiers and policemen. After independence, they lost all of their special privileges and found their state divided between India and Pakistan. This followed with a bitter war against the Muslims in 1965, which forced the Sikhs to migrate from their homeland of Punjab to India. This followed a year ... ...o the level of nation-state and higher, because along with the exploitation of their culture and people, the Europeans also brought the means to advance to an industrial society. With those abilities they can still flourish in the future. Bibliography Works Consulted Davenport, Prof. TRH. South African Communication Services. â€Å"South Africa: History.† Available [Online] http://www.facts.com/cd/C01001.htm Copyright 1995. â€Å"History of Troubles† World BookTM Multimedia Encyclopedia. Available [Online] http://www.worldbook.com/fun/bth/html/hist.htm Copyright 1998. â€Å"Ireland (History)† The Concise Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Third Edition. Available [Online] http://www.encyclopedia .com/articles/06458.html Copyright 1998. â€Å"South Africa- can a country overcome its history?† available [Online] http://www.learner.org/exhibits/southafrica/ Copyright 1998. Ulack, Richard. â€Å"Malaysia† Encarta [CD-Rom] updated: July 1997. Winchester, N. Brian; O’Meara, Patrick. â€Å"Republic of South Africa† Encarta [CD-Rom] updated: August, 1998. Lapping, Brian. Apartheid: A History. Braziller, New York: 1987. Lemon, Anthony. â€Å"Sikhs and Sikhism† Encarta [CD-Rom] updated: July 1998. Word Count: 1456

The Supernatural in Shakespeares Macbeth :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

The Supernatural in Macbeth   Ã‚        Everyone has a slightly different interpretation of the supernatural but the interpretation which we can start with is Shakespeare’s. Everyone of Shakespeare’s time found the supernatural fascinating. Shakespeare interpreted the supernatural as witches, magic, unnatural and evil and he expressed his beliefs in the play, â€Å"Macbeth† very clearly, as he portrayed the three deformed women with control over the weather and the ability to predict the future. These three evil witches with magical powers were the creation of Shakespeare’s interpretation of the supernatural. Shakespeare’s contemporaries believed in the supernatural very strongly and a majority of them were frightened of it, including the king of that time, King James I of England.   Ã‚   Since it was an interesting issue which many people of Shakespeare’s time felt they were affected by, Shakespeare wrote about it. â€Å"Macbeth† with its supernatural theme was the 17th century’s equivalent to the modern day horror movie.   Ã‚   The play begins with a supernatural scene, where the three witches meet and give many clues as to who they are or what they have control over,   Ã‚   â€Å"†¦we three meet again in thunder, lighting or in rain?†¦.When the battle’s lost and won†¦.That will be ere the set of sun†¦.There to meet with Macbeth.†   Ã‚   This scene sets the atmosphere for the rest of the play. If this scene was not there it would be difficult for the audience to understand how later scenes are linked or how these three women can tell Macbeth’s future. Also if elements of the supernatural were not used in Act 1 Scene 1, as they have been, the witches could not be shown as sinister and evil. These two elements of horror, â€Å"sinister† and â€Å"evil† would later be used to explain the cause of the three witches’ behaviour further on in the play.   Ã‚  Ã‚   As the play continues the supernatural is used more. Act 1 Scene 3 is Macbeth’s first meeting with the witches, and is also the first time the audience sees or experiences the witches’ supernatural abilities.   Ã‚   â€Å"All hail to thee, Thane of Cowdor, All hail, Macbeth! That shalt be king hereafter†.   Ã‚   The witches predict Macbeth’s future and tell him that he shall become the Thane of Cowdor and then king. The rest of the play is based on this supernatural happening. After learning that Macbeth is to become King of Scotland the play follows Macbeth’s plot to get rid off King Duncan and then Macbeth’s life after the murder.

Different Types of Human Communication

Different Types of Human Communication Most animals communicate with each other in some way. Dogs bark at those they perceive as a threat in order to communicate their hostility and in some cases the threat that they will attack if provoked; bees have a pouch in which they carry the scent of their hive so as to identify themselves as members of the community. However, it is only in humans that communication breaks off into different types of communication: verbal and non-verbal, and formal and informal. Verbal communication is just what one would expect from the name: communication using words, and in some cases written characters. There are subcategories for verbal communication, depending on who is at the receiving end of the communication. The main division is between interpersonal communication, in which one person speaks directly to another person, and public or group speaking, in which one person speaks to a large group. From here, the intention of the person speaking breaks it down into still further categories depending on whether they are trying to persuade the listener or listeners to think or act in a certain way, to convey information in the clearest manner possible, or even to entertain. However, in many cases, the intentions of the speaker will overlap: speakers may want to persuade, inform, and entertain their audiences all at the same time. Sometimes, they may even be unaware of what their true intentions are themselves. Non-verbal communication is the type that is more similar to what the dogs and bees mentioned above do. Non-verbal communication includes all the information we convey to others, whether consciously or subconsciously, without actually using any words. Probably the most ubiquitous example of non verbal communication is that of facial expressions. For example, when a person rolls their eyes at someone, they are expressing skepticism about what the speaker said. They are not using any words to convey this message, but using their understanding of the non-verbal cues they can send that message without having to explicitly say, â€Å"I really find what you are saying unbelievable†. Not all facial expressions are so calculated though: there are those like smiles that come naturally when someone is happy, and indicate this to others. Beyond these more explicit examples, there are more subtle instances of non-verbal communication. For example, clothing: just as the male peacock uses a vibrant display of his colorful feathers to signal to a potential mate that he is a desirable choice, people use clothing in order to send messages about themselves (whether they are true or not). In this vein, a man going to a job interview will usually wear a suit and tie in order to convey the idea that he is a very professional person. Unlike facial expressions, this kind of non-verbal communication is more like verbal communication because it is arbitrary – there is no intrinsic reason why a suit and tie should convey the idea of professionalism any more than a Japanese kimono would. It is simply that it has become a cultural norm that a suit and tie is what a professional person wears, and as such it becomes a symbol and a means of non-verbal communication. Formal communication is more strongly associated with large and small group speaking. It is more rule bound, and is more centered on the speaker getting some kind of result. For example, speaking to a board room full of business executives in order to convince them to accept a marketing strategy is an example of formal communication: what is said and how it is said is rule-bound to what is considered appropriate for the setting, and it is directed toward the specific end of getting the executives to accept the ad campaign. Furthermore, their are instances of symbolic non-verbal communication, such as the wearing of business attire in order to appear professional. Informal communication is associated with interpersonal communication. While it is still rule bound by the social norms of the those communicating, there is much more room for the speaker to be free in what he or she says. Informal communication is also much less tied to specific ends: in many cases, it takes place simply for the speaker to express what they think and feel about anything in particular, and the speaking is undertaken as an end it itself. It is a much more emotionally involved form of communication, in large part because there is less emphasis on symbolic non-verbal communication and more emphasis on saying what one really feels. Although these various types of communication are very different, they are all indispensable tools for communicating with and understanding others. In order to be able to look at others and truly appreciate what they are trying to convey and whether what they are saying has any value, one needs to have a thorough understanding of all types. Informal Communication If formal communication is viewed like dressing for a black tie affair, informal communication is like dressing casually and wearing slippers around the house. Much informal communication occurs on a person-to-person basis, in a face-to-face manner, without ceremony or fanfare. Other ways to communicate in an informal manner may include texting, post-it notes, an informal drop in visit to another person, or a quick and spontaneous meeting. Informal communication includes all the various methods of relaying information or messages between people. It often is called â€Å"the grapevine† as messages weave back and forth and around people. There are none of the trappings of formal messages, such as company letterhead, planned meetings or specific introductions of guests. Everyone is relaxed and casual, eager to chat about many things, as there is no specific agenda to follow. This type of communication frequently is oral, and works easily for small groups. The scope of the conversation may be broader than a formal presentation, and include topics that are diverse in nature, free flowing and loose rather than scripted carefully. Unfortunately, informal communication is subject to creating rumors and misinformation due to its loose nature and lack of substantiating evidence. This is the type of interaction that occurs in the workplace as banter between employees, or idle chatting. It is seen as blog entries on the Internet. At colleges, students are encouraged to drop by their professors’ offices as needed, informally. Other informal web communication is seen in diaries, personal email letters, instant messaging, emoticons, online chat rooms and cyberspace bulletin boards. Informal communication also may take a non-verbal form as facial expressions, sign language, or manner of dress. In spoken language, the informal communicative style incorporates the use of the second and first voices. This is in contrast to the use of the third person voice in formal communications. One of the visible signs of informal communication is its natural and easy style, as opposed to being formally regimented. There may be the use of colloquialisms and local slang in the course of speech. It is unconventional and without rules, which is just the opposite of formal. Informal communication is used to help put people at ease. This can be seen in an interview situation where an interviewer such as a paralegal needs to make a little small talk to help get clients to relax, feel welcome and open up verbally. The use of informal language is far more prevalent in society than the use of formal language. Formal Communication Formal communication can be considered as communication efforts that are â€Å"dressed up† to fit customary rules and ceremony For example, in a written letter, the formal communication style will demand that the layout of the piece of written communication follow a specific format that includes the date, header, salutation, body of the letter, close, signature lines and any indicators of enclosures all placed neatly upon company letterhead or personal stationery. By contrast, an informal piece of written communication can be as simple as a jotted note to a friend on a torn slip of paper Formal communications are mostly written, although they may now also include formal presentations that are on computer disk, video tape or DVDs, MP3 presentations and other similar electronic reproductions of written communications. Other forms of formal communications include newsletters, legal advisories, invitations, awards, and letters of congratulations. Non-written formal communication devices are in-person communications in the forms of departmental meetings, telephone calls, conferences and special interviews. Some publications that are devoted to a special purpose, such as a company’s annual report, are formal communications. There is a non-verbal component to formal communication as well. The style and manners of the presenter dictate the formalness of a meeting, and this can be immediately seen at the time of introduction of a speaker. Some elements of non-verbal formal communication include maintaining a certain distance from others, standing above the crowd, speaking in formal tones and using formal means of address to others, such as â€Å"Mister† or â€Å"Doctor† when calling upon others. Colloquialisms, which are freely used in informal communication, are not present in formal communications. Proper English or another language is spoken. Formal communications will follow a chain of command in the flow of the communication, either upwards to or down from managers. The use of formal communication is more prevalent in highly technical areas where a message must be exact and specific, leaving no room for misinterpretation. The written communication is carefully thought out, and planned for a certain effect or result. It often is written in a third person non-personal voice of â€Å"he, she, it, and they† rather than â€Å"I† or â€Å"you† voices. Grammar, spelling and layout are important for written communications, and for spoken communications there is an emphasis placed on the quality of the speech voice and pronunciation. Some formal communications are congratulatory, others can be advisory or informational. Legal papers follow a tightly formatted layout that is customary within the professional and widely used by others. Likewise, scientific research papers have a customary format to follow. Any written communication that is expected to adhere to particular rules can be considered to be formal communication, and the actual tone of the piece may range from friendly to threatening. It can be more demanding and imply expectations to the receiver that should create desired results. Communication through Body Language Communication is how human beings interact with the world that surrounds them. There are many forms of communication, some being more effective at conveying the intent or feelings of the individual expressing than others. Many people have a hard time with communication, and can find it difficult to tell others what they think or to give them bad news. Sometimes, they can’t find the right words to express the things they want to say. There are also those people who are not to be believed due to a history of dishonesty or embellishing the truth. One form of communication, however, is always honest and can always be counted on. Body language is a form of communication that is performed subconsciously. It occurs almost constantly, and will almost always give the correct impression that a person has of someone else, the environment, or the situation at hand. Body language makes it easy to know if someone is nervous, scared, interested, or focused, among many other feelings that could be happening. Learning to read body language can be as simple as paying attention to your own body when feeling specific emotions. For example, if you are able to notice the unconscious things that your body does when you are nervous, then it should be simple for you to be able to see when another person is nervous in a certain situation. Often, reading the body language of another person will tell you more than having an actual conversation would, especially if the conversation has the potential to be uncomfortable or is something that no one wants to acknowledge. On the lighter side of body language communication, it can be a very helpful tool in determining how interested another person is in you. When single people meet for the first time, reading the signs of body language can help you to determine if this person has any interest in you beyond friendship. If on a date, the person leans towards you when you are speaking or has their arms at their sides with the front of their body facing towards you, that is a sign that signifies a true interest in the things you are saying. If, on the other hand, they have their arms crossed, are leaning back in their chair with their back turned towards you, and are avoiding contact, they probably are not interested. These are some good physical indicators that you could be wasting your time. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is any kind of communication not involving words. When the term is used, most people think of facial expressions and gestures, but while these are important elements of nonverbal communication, they are not the only ones. Nonverbal communication can include vocal sounds that are not words such as grunts, sighs, and whimpers. Even when actual words are being used, there are nonverbal sound elements such as voice tone, pacing of speech and so forth. Nonverbal communication can be incorporated in a person’s dress. In our society, a person wearing a police uniform is already communicating an important message before they say a word. Another example is a man’s business suit, which is perceived by some as communicating an air of efficiency and professionalism. While each of these cues conveys a message, so does its absence. In some settings, failing to express a nonverbal cue also communicates meaning. A policeman out of uniform is called â€Å"plainclothes† and is seen as deliberately trying to conceal his role. To some, this may make him seem smart or efficient, while others may consider him sneaky or untrustworthy. In the same way, a businessman who does not wear a suit is conveying an air of casualness which some would consider slightly less professional. In the modern world, â€Å"dressing down† implies a relaxation of professional standards that is much more than just a change of clothes. Many cues are based on learned cultural standards, but there are some elements of nonverbal communication that are universal. Paul Eckman’s landmark research on facial expressions in the 1960? s found that the expressions for emotions such as anger, fear, sadness and surprise are the same across all cultural barriers. The setting where communication takes place also lends a meaning to words apart from their literal definition, and constitutes nonverbal communication. For instance, the word â€Å"tradition† means one thing when it is spoken in City Hall, and quite another when it is spoken in a church. The sign of a cross takes on great cultural meaning when used in a religious context, but on a road sign it just means that an intersection is coming up. Some nonverbal communication accompanies words and modifies their meanings. For instance, our speed of speaking and the pauses we place between our words form a nonverbal element to our speech. A slight pause before a word can imply uncertainty or be interpreted as a request for confirmation from the listener, whereas a lack of pauses can be taken as a sign of confidence or the encouragement of a fast reply from the listener. If someone asks you a question in a hurried manner, you will probably get the feeling that they want a similarly quick reply. The use of personal space constitutes a form of nonverbal communication. If someone leans toward their listener as they speak, it implies that they are communicating something personal or secret. Depending on the social nuances of the situation, this may be taken as a sign of friendship or an unwanted invasion of space. The use of touching as an element of communication is called haptic communication, and its meanings are very culture-dependent. In American society, a handshake, a pat on the shoulder or a â€Å"high five† have certain definite meanings understood by practically everybody. In other societies, these might be enigmatic acts or an embarrassing invasion of personal space. The use of the eyes as an element of nonverbal communication is an area of study in itself, and is called â€Å"oculesics. † Researchers have divided eye movements into separate elements such as the number and length of eye contacts, blink rate, dilation of the pupils and so forth. Here again, the interpretation of these cues is highly dependent on the culture of the participants. A prolonged stare may establish a bond of trust, or destroy it. It may elicit a reply from the person being stared at, or it may make them become uncommunicative from embarrassment. This is how most of our communication takes place. When we consider the amount of nonverbal communication that passes between us and compare it with the mere words we say, it is obvious that the nonverbal part is by far the largest.